Thomas Hobbes And The Philosophy Of Political Science

He started out on the philosophy of political science while on his trips and visits to other countries outside of England to listen to other scientists and learn different forms of government. While studying, Thomas Hobbes wondered about why people were allowing themselves to be ruled and what would a great form of government for England. He reasoned that people were naturally wicked and shouldn’t be trusted to govern themselves because they were selfish creatures and would do anything to better their position and social status. These people, when left alone will go back to their evil impulses to get a better advantage over others. So Thomas Hobbes concluded that the best form of government would an absolute monarchy, which is a government which gives all power to the king or queen to provide direction and leadership to make sure the country doesn’t go into turmoil. To support his ideas, Thomas Hobbes asked the question,† If men are naturally in a state of war, why are they carrying arms and have keys to lock their doors.† In other words, even when the country is at peace, the people are still using things which can get them a better advantage over others and keeping their own interests a secret from others. According to Thomas Hobbes, the reason this is the case is because people are selfish and evil and that they protect their interests really well by using certain tactics to make sure other people devastate their needs and wants. Also, without a leader, these people wouldShow MoreRelatedThomas Hobbes s Leviathan 1190 Words   |  5 PagesThe source which will be analysed is the frontispiece of Thomas Hobbes most famous work ‘Leviathan’ and ‘Leviathan’ as a whole. The frontispiece is considered as prominent as the arguments put forth by Thomas Hobbes in the ‘Leviathan’ itself. The frontispi ece depicts a crowned figure grasping a crosier and a sword. This figure, or ‘Leviathan’, represents the all-powerful, comprehensive state. When looked at closely, the torso and arms of the figure are made up of hundreds of individual people, whoRead MoreThe Philosophy of Thomas Hobbs Essay1748 Words   |  7 PagesThomas Hobbss philosophy Hobbes Moral: Thomas Hobbes is known best for his political thought and the English philosopher. The vision of Hobbes for the world is still relevant to modern politics. He always focus the problems of social and political order: that how human beings can keep away the terror of civil and difference to live together in peace and got authorize to decide every social and political matter. 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He lived during a time when England was experiencing a lot of political conflict between the king and Parliament. (Green-Heffern) This was also a time when many questions existed about how to rule a country and what made a good government. Thomas Hobbes’ Elements of Law (1640), his analysis of the SocialRead MoreBriefly Explain What Is Meant by the â€Å"Scientific Revolution† That Took Place in Seventeenth Century Europe, and How It Marked a Departure from Ancient and Medieval Philosophy.1603 Words   |  7 Pagescentury Europe, and how it marked a departure from ancient and medieval philosophy. The term  Scientific Revolution  refers to a period in the  17th century  when the intellects of Europe had a revolution. This was an illustrious time for science and the initiation of modern science. During that period famous people such as Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and  Isaac Newton  all lived and contributed greatly to many areas of science. 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In this paper, a review and support of Hobbes’s will be addressed with the relationship is how Hobbes explanation was the most accurate scientific view regarding the air pump and its many experiments. LookingRead MoreThe Enlightenment : The Ideas Of The Enlightenment720 Words   |  3 PagesDuring the Enlightenment era, both elite culture and popular culture had influences, philosophers dominating the ideals of the time period. In the eighteenth century, philosophers such as Adam Smith, Thomas Hobbes, and Jean Jacques Rousseau empowered people to think upon their natural rights and suggested new ideologies to follow and/or support. Additionally, because of the Enlightenment, the Realist and Neoclassical Art Movement spurred and gathered momentum as artists changed the art scene withRead MoreSocial And Political Order : Seat Belt Laws1102 Words   |  5 PagesSocial and Political Order: Seat Belt Laws Social and Political theories aim to define the relationships between government and citizen, and concerns the organization and basis of government. (Merriam-Webster, n.d). In application, the necessity to find a balance between two primary theories becomes apparent. Modern day social and political theories can largely be attributed to ideas of two individuals, Thomas Hobbes and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Hobbes believed major government influence was a necessity

Women Of The United States Army - 1964 Words

The United States Army was founded on June 14, 1775, and since this day women have helped nurture this great branch into what is known today as the largest and oldest United States Military service. (â€Å"Women†) The US Army is consisted of about 452,064 enlisted soldiers and 87,610 officers. This total of 539,675 makes up 37.8% of all of the military branches. (Demographics†) As time has carried on more and more women are looking to serve the country in the Army. While women have many skills and abilities to offer, there is still a major issue that needs to be addressed. Double standards for women in the Army has created a disservice to not only the females but the entire Army. In order to have a more efficient armed force, standards for men and women should be equivalent. The military has always been a predominantly male environment. However, women have been active participants since the first major war, the American Revolution. Historically, women have served as nurs es in many wars including Vietnam and both World Wars. As time progressed, females started to expand into different military occupation specialties. In the middle of the 1900s the first women pilots created the WASP. This stood for Women Air Force Service Pilots and their duty was to fly and deliver the planes from the factors to the military bases. During this same time fields like factory worker, national intelligence and security started to fill with female employment. Now women make up 15.7 percent of theShow MoreRelatedWomen During World War II1674 Words   |  7 PagesIn World War II, women contributed in many ways by entering the battle. Some of the jobs the women held were Army nurses, Red Cross members, factory work, etc. The United States were one of the few countries that put their women to work and was ridiculed for it. 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The APFT is different from any other standardized test I have ever seen. It is painfully obvious that the test is severely skewed in the females favor. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;About fifteen years ago, â€Å"a group of sports medicine experts in the Army decided that the standards forRead MoreWomen During The United States Military1345 Words   |  6 Pages 9 April 2016 TOULMIN ESSAY Women have always served in the United States Military, since the beginning of the existence of the United States. I will make the argument, that women can and should be allowed to serve in combat roles, that are traditionally open for men only. Combat does not distinguish between the sexes. This is an important issue for everyone. 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Divergence or Middle of the Path Hrm Model free essay sample

It is difficult to prescribe a HRM model without analyzing the regional and socio-contextual factors inherent in Oman and neither convergence nor pure divergence provides a solution to this end. INTRODUCTION We are living in a highly dynamic and chaotic world of business today where organizations have to be an effective customer responsive organization. They have to gear up for becoming an effective global competitor. In GCC countries and especially in Oman, firms have no choices left as well. They are facing the onslaught of globalization, and the recent economic recession has further worsened the situation. They have to be flexible and re-look at their HRM system and restructure its hard-defined procedures. It still remains a challenge for majority of Omani companies to adopt these changes. It is widely accepted now that HRM can act as a key means to achieve a competitive advantage in Omani firms. Though, some of the Omani firms have shown keen interest in recent past to be a responsive organization in this regard. But they don’t know which way to go. Either to adopt the western HRM model as being presented to them or to explore or recreate something indigenous seeing their distinct work realities. If we look at the evolving paradigm of HRM, it becomes difficult to identify which model or framework of HRM will be more relevant for Oman. There have been numerous model of HRM which can help Omani firm in achieving organizational effectiveness but there is lack of information about their utility and applicability which poses a great question for Omani firms. In many cases, these hypothetical models have been found not fully relevant for Middle East countries or GCC countries and Oman in particular. Culture-free or culture-bound is the other issue which is raised by researchers alike. In fact, there is an absence of a systematic analysis that could present a comprehensive picture of the dynamics of the HRM in the Middle-East region (Budhwar and Mellahi, 2006). In this background, the present paper is an attempt to understand the dynamics of HRM in Oman. It will evaluate various HRM models and will attempt to raise a debate on developing a HRM system which can suit to the exigencies of Omani society. 76 Journal of Management Policy and Practice vol. 12(1) 2011 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AT FIRM LEVEL: EVOLVING PARADIGMS Nothing has moved as fast as in the last twenty five years for the discipline of human resource management. It has come a long way from a reactive, bureaucratic people management function (being called as personnel management) to a proactive and strategic human resource management. The shift in the paradigm has been forced by economic, business and socio-political factors but the changed stance is a reality and firms worldwide are looking at HR function as becoming important and expecting more value addition to the strategic objectives of the firm. The role of human resource management function is at a crossroad, on the one hand it is facing the crisis whereas there is an unprecedented opportunity to refocus its HRM systems as strategic assets (Becker et al. , 1997). Khatri and Budhwar (2002) also feels that the field of HRM is in transition and it is breaking away from its micro-focused role to a macro strategic paradigm in which individual HR functions are not only aligned with the organization strategy but also with one another (see Budhwar, 2000; Lundy, 1994; Martell and Carroll, 1995; Ritson, 1999 as quoted by Khatri and Budhwar, 2002). There have been numerous model of HRM which has evolved in last 25 years or so and they have contributed significantly to the discipline of HRM. In the following paragraphs, some of them are analyzed and a comment has been made on their applicability for this part of world. Starting from Michigan model (Fombrun, Tichy and Devanna, 1984) to Harvard model (Beer et al. , 1985) to contextual model (Hendry and Pettigrew, 1992; Hendry et al. , 1988) to Schuler’s 5-P model (Schuler, 1992) of strategic HRM where he emphasizes on philosophies, olicies, programmes, practices and processes, the HRM literature has evolved to a great extent. The Michigan model looks at human resource as a resource and advocates for its efficient utilization to meet organizational objectives and this model is based heavily on Chandler’s (1962) argument that an organization’s structure is an outcome of its strategy (Budhwar and Debrah, 2001) and structure is designed to serve the strategy. This model ignores the humanistic feeling or anchor point while dealing with human resource and they are seen just as a cog in the machine, that is the reason, it is referred as a hard approach to HRM. The organizational effectiveness in this model depends on achieving tight fit between HR and business strategies and it is pursued by adopting four key HRM systems such as selection, appraisal, compensation and development system of the firms. There have been many criticism of this hard approach calling it prescriptive and strongly unitarist (Boxall, 1992) and many feels that the very idea of tight fit makes the organization less flexible and moribund for a change and hence unfitted for the present day business scenario (Budhwar and Debrah, 2001). In the context of Oman, this model has less relevance as we can’t have a hard defined strategic recruitment and HR system and government plays very important role in this area. The reliance of Omani firms on expatriate workforce has forced government to undertake Omanization programs i. e. , employing and training Omani locals; and Omani firms have to employ certain percentage of Omani locals and if they fail to do so they can be penalized. The Harvard model (Beer et al. 1985) which is also referred as softer model of HRM (See Legge, 1995; Storey, 1992) focuses on human relation (Mabey and Salaman, 1997; see also Blyton and Turnbull, 1992) and tends to adopt a particular approach to work place relations: emphasizing unitary, integrative, individualistic systems, undermining workforce organization or collectivist values as outcomes of management choices about the key HRM levers affecting workforce-organization relations. This helps in creating employee commitment in organization and lead to better realization of goals. As far as its relevance to Oman or GCC countries is concerned, it seems to be limited in its utility due to heavy reliance of GCC or Omani firms on expatriate workforce. Most of the expatriate workers have a short term employment contract of a year or two and this short-termist approach and lack of employment security makes it hard for organization to generate the egree of employee commitment they require. AlRajhi et al. (2006) in their study of Saudi Arabian HR system also feels that HR has an important role to play in facilitating the successful cultural and work adjustment of these guest workers to enhance their productivity and well being. Journal of Management Policy and Practice vol. 12(1) 2011 77 Mabey and Salaman (1997) quote Hendry and Pettigrew (1986) who argue that the strategic aspect of HRM consists of four key elements: the use of planning; a coherent approach to the design and management of personnel systems based on an employment policy and manpower strategy, and often underpinned by a ‘philosophy’; matching HRM activities and policies to some explicit strategy; and seeing the people of the organization as a ‘strategic resource’ for achieving ‘competitive advantage’. Taking a cue from Hendry and Pettigrew, Schuler developed his 5-P model which talks of strategic integration of business and HR strategy. In recent time, HRM has been labeled as strategic human resource management and it seems to be concerned with ‘integration’ and ‘adaptation’ of business strategies and HR strategies. Schuler (1992) prescribes that: HRM should be fully integrated with the strategy and strategic needs of the firm; HR policies must be coherent; and HR practices are required to be adjusted, accepted and used by the managers and employees as part of their everyday work (Budhwar and Debrah, 2001). This model seems to be highly hypothetical (Budhwar and Debrah, 2001) and it looks to have less attraction for Omani firms. HRM in Omani firms is in nascent stage and there is lack of participation of HR specialist on the board of the firms, they are hardly involved in strategic decision making process and in this scenario, it makes difficult for them to adopt coherent and strategic HR intervention and serving the strategic needs of the firms. Though 5-Ps (philosophies, policies, programmes, practices and processes) will remain relevant as an ideal to achieve in long term for Omani firms. In recent time, High Performance Work System has made much currency among HR practitioners and researchers alike and there has been wide debate on its utility across region and culture. Becker, Huselid and Ulrich (2001) in their wide acclaimed book, The HR Scorecard present a framework for creating High-Performance Work System and prescribe that a firm must have the following characteristics among others: use of formal performance appraisal and management, use of multiscore performance appraisal and feedback, use of validated selection and promotion models and procedures, extensive training and development of new employees, linkages of merit increases to formal appraisal system, high differential in pay between high and low performers, and high percentage of jobs filled within. Though, this model appears having wide appeal and seems applicable to most firms but if we look at the prerequisites of creating such a system, it appears to be near to impossible in this part of world. Thus we see most of the models have their inherent limitation which are difficult to replicate in GCC countries. Omanization itself limits all of HPWS’s vitality prescribed by its authors. The other important point is that the region or country-specific phenomenon remains important to be seen in this regard while generalizing the utility of a particular HRM model at a firm level. Any model which looks into regional, cultural and socioeconomic factors will be more appropriate. In the present global scenario, there is a need for understanding region or country-specific phenomena that would help to generate theory for global relevant issue. It will also help to evaluate region-specific constructs to study local and global issues (Budhwar and Mellahi, 2006). CONVERGENCE OR DIVERGENCE OR MIDDLE OF THE PATH Despite all attractiveness of the emerging paradigm of HRM, certain questions need to be answered. Researchers have made great attempt in examining the applicability of some of the theoretical models of HRM but very little research or probing exists for this part of world. Researchers have questioned the universal applicability of the Anglo-Saxon model. This has generated a dilemma before the firms in this region in dealing with the change in their respective HR process. Either they should adopt the best-fit (contingency model) or the best practices approach (see also Boxall Purcell, 2000). The best practices approach is based on the normative statements of what HR practices should look like together with the proposition that the adoption of these practices will lead universally to organizational success. This 78 Journal of Management Policy and Practice vol. 12(1) 2011 approach is highly influenced by American researchers and commentators whereas the best fit model advocates external and internal integration of HR strategy with the overall business strategy (Doherty, Klenert and Manfredi, 2007). These approaches need to be evaluated in socio-cultural context for serving the objective of the realization of organizational goals in Omani firms. Best fit vs. best practices debate further gets reinforced with the convergence-divergence debate. The proponents of convergence approach (e. g. , Kerr et al. , 1960; Eisenstadt, 1973; Levitt, 1983; Prentice 1990) state that the international competitive pressure overrides differences in a national management system and lead to a convergence management practices towards the most successful model whereas the scholars of the divergence approach (e. . , Laurent, 1983; Whitley, 2000; Hickson and Pugh, 2001; Hofstede, 2001) stress on the management practices strongly influenced by the national-economic context (Pudelko, 2006). Thus the field of HRM is witnessing a two bipolar paradigms i. e. , universalistic/ convergence and the contextual /divergence paradigm. The applicability of an HRM model for GCC countries and Oman in particular is an i ssue which needs to be reevaluated. Most of the oil-based economies of GCC have their contextual factors which are sharply different from the US and Western developed countries. Pudelko (2006) made a comparison of HRM systems in the USA, Japan and Germany and found that the socio-economic contextual factors of the American and Japanese HR systems are in many ways at opposite ends with the German factors in between and he warns against any over-optimism with regard to fully standardize managerial practices across countries. He is of the view that the profound embededness of HR practices in their respective socio-economic contexts appear to limit the margin for MNCs to comprehensively standardize their HR practices and the immense cultural and institutional complexity of various countries seems to work as a counterweight to pressures for convergence. Smith and Meiksins (1995: 128) also observe that US, Germany and Japan are most frequently referred as ‘models’ but their perceived strength is distributed quite unequally: the American model has to be described as dominant (Dore, 2000) whereas the Japanese model is defensive and subject to profound odifications (Frenkel, 1994) and the German model appears to be in a process of change albeit a more moderate one (Pudelko, 2004 as quoted by Pudelko, 2006). In this context, it will be worthwhile to raise a question about the development of a national HRM model or system which can serve the Omani firms in more proactive ways. As it is difficult to p rescribe a HRM model without analyzing the regional and socio-contextual factors inherent in Oman. In fact, neither convergence nor pure divergence provides a solution to this end. As we have seen in the previous study of Pudelko (2006) that mere imitation of HR practices is near to impossible to be successful in a given country but he found that German system and more particularly the Japanese systems have moved somewhat more towards the ‘American side’ of the bipolar scale. In the end, Pudelko(2006) advocates a middle of the path approach calling it a universalism-particularism approach, one which seeks to integrate both opposite streams rather than trying to overcome the contradiction between the two lines of thoughts and declaring one more valid than the other. Sparrow, Schuler and Jackson (1994) in their study of HR systems of 12 countries evaluated the HR practices and policies for competitive advantage. They tried to find out that what must be done to gain competitive advantage and do firms in different parts of the globe practice human resource management for competitive advantage differently? Their investigation concludes that there is indeed a convergence in the use of HRM for competitive advantage, however, in pursuing this convergence there are some clear divergences, nuances and specific themes in the areas of HRM that must be handled carefully. HRD is another area which also needs a mention here though it has been used interchangeably with HRM. Woodall (2005) writing the editorial, theoretical framework for comparing HRD in an international context for the journal, Human Resource Development International opines that a lot of articles have been written which explore, describe and analyse HRD practices in different cultural contexts but now the HRD scholarship is confronting cross-cultural analysis problem which has been faced by earlier social science and management discipline and we have to make a choice, either we take well established theories developed and tested mainly in USA and then apply it for analyzing the empirical evidence gathered from other countries or we should start afresh in that setting, grounding our process of theorization in specific cultural context. Though, the latter approach or choice seems to be more Journal of Management Policy and Practice vol. 12(1) 2011 79 eaningful as it can serve the HR constituency in GCC countries in a better way nonetheless, knowledge base gained elsewhere can also be uti lized in any setting provided it doesnt change the desired objective of the course of the action and makes fruitful contribution. HRM MODEL AT NATIONAL LEVEL FOR OMAN Oman is one of the GCC countries (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Oman) with a population of 2. 416 million (Ministry of National Economy, 2005). It is the third largest country in Arabia with a total land area of 309,500 sq. kilometers. bordering Yemen, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates lying on the southeast corner of the Arabian Peninsula. The commercial export of oil began in 1967 in Oman. Since then, oil has been the major contributor to the GDP. The fourth five year plan (1991-1995) for the first time emphasized the need to diversify the production base other than oil and Government paid special attention to the sectoral and regional development process in Oman (Ministry of Information, 2002). Omani firms depend heavily on the expatriate workforce and they comprise 54 percent of the total workforce. GCC countries’ expatriate workforce exceeds 10 million and constitutes up to 70 percent of the GCC labor force. It accounts for 88 percent in UAE, 83 percent in Qatar, 81 percent in Kuwait, 72 percent in Saudi Arabia and 55 percent in Bahrain (Oman Economic Review, March 2006). GCC countries have taken many steps to strategically cut down its reliance on expatriate workers and Oman has also adopted Omanization policy (employing Omani nationals only—where certain percentage of employment has to be attained by firms by certain date, which is different from sector to sector) has become an important issue and many firms believe that it limits their ability to compete and impacts the value chain of their competitive advantage. There is no denying to the fact that the socio-contextual factors play very important role in Middle East, GCC countries in general and Oman in particular. Abed (2003) identifies five main root causes holding back the economic growth of the Middle East which are: lagging political reforms, dominant public sectors, underdeveloped financial markets, high trade restrictiveness and inappropriate exchange rate. Some other factors are: lack of integration into global economy (Looney, 2003), the rising rate of unemployment, closed economy, over dependence on the oil and lack of privatization initiatives (Budhwar and Mellahi, 2006). Furthermore, the legal framework, political uncertainties and the weakness of entrepreneurial cultures make this region more vulnerable (See Talib 1996; Abed, 2003). Though, some countries have pushed privatization program intensively in recent time and Oman is one of them. Oman signed FTA with US in the year 2006 and amended its labour laws in line with the international demand. These are modest beginning in the context of Oman. Many researcher have argued that the development of management theories and organization for the Arab region should pay due attention to the Arab environment. Ali (1995) also feels that management theories in this region can only be developed by giving due importance to the Arab environment. Anwar (2003) found the stark differences in American and Arabian culture and find that how US companies have adopted their management styles and philosophy to suit the cultural demand of UAE. In another study (Saleh and Kleiner, 2005), it was found that to be successful in the Middle East region, American companies must develop an understanding of the culture, people and politics of this part of the world. A number of scholars identify the immense impact of Islamic values, Islamic work ethics, and Islamic principles on the management of human resource in Islamic countries (Budhwar and Mellahi, 2006) and Oman is one such country whereupon such factors play important role in shaping HRM system and other related institutions which determine the HR. Al-Hamadi and Budhwar (2006) also endorse such view and comment that in an Islamic country like Oman, when the government decides to design HRM policies, it has to consider the effects of religion primarily besides other factors such as culture, political ideology, economic conditions and the legal system. There is a need for developing HRM framework to comprehend the dynamics of people management function at the national level. It is also important to look at cross-national and cross-cultural differences in terms of acquisition, utilization, retaining and development of the workforce. Any national HRM system evolves primarily from the industrialization process and the necessary insight can be gained by 80 Journal of Management Policy and Practice vol. 12(1) 2011 understanding the unique organizational criteria derived from national business systems and the resultant HRM policies and preferences (Sparrow and Budhwar, 1997). There are four frames of reference which shed light on the distinctive national and local HRM solutions and the factors associated with it. These are: Evolution of the business system and the structure of labour markets; The institutional influence on the employment relationship; The competence and role of HRM decision makers; and The influence of national culture on policy preferences (Sparrow and Hiltrop, 1997 as quoted by Sparrow and Budhwar, 1997). After critically analyzing several frameworks and undertaking extensive research work in the field, Budhwar et al. (see Budhwar 2004, Budhwar and Debrah 2001, 2004, Budhwar and Sparrow, 1998, 2002) propose a framework for examining cross-national HRM (Budhwar and Mellahi, 2006). They have identified three levels of factors and variables that are known to influence HRM policies and practices. These are: i. National factors (involving national culture, national institutions, business sectors and dynamic business environment); ii. Contingent variables (such as age, size, nature, ownership, life cycle stages of organization ); and iii. Organizational strategies and policies related to primary functions and internal labour market. TABLE 1 ASPECTS OF NATIONAL FACTORS DETERMINING CROSS-NATIONAL HRM I-National Culture Socialization process, common values, norms of behavior, customs, influence of pressure groups, assumptions that shape managers’ perceptions, insights and mindsets, management style, meaning of work and values, personal dispositions, attitudes and manners, approaches to cultural diversity, match to the organization culture. II-Institutions National labour laws, trade unions, politics, educational and vocational training set-up, labour market, professional bodies, international institutions, industry by itself, employers’ federation, consulting organizations, placement organizations, trade bodies, government institutions, local authorities, voluntary bodies. III-Industrial Sector Common strategies, business logic and goals, regulations and standards, sector-specific knowledge, informal and formal benchmarking, cross-sector co-operation, common developments in business operations, labour or skill requirements, merger activity, workforce mobility, capital mobility. IV-Dynamic Business Environment Competition, business alliances, changing composition of workforce, restructuring, focus on total customer satisfaction, facility of information, technological change, globalization of business. Source: Budhwar (2004: 8). Furthermore, Budhwar and Sparrow (2002) provide details of the aspects of national factors which determine cross-national human resource management which are listed in the Table-1. All these national factors form macro-environment of organization in a national context and play important role in shaping national level HRM system. Therefore, it can be argued that a national HRM system for Oman must take into account the culture specific factors. Other stakeholders and institutions also play important role in shaping HR discourse and learning. As cited above, specific industrial sector issues are also pertinent and above all the business environment and its dynamics like degree of competition, composition of workforce, restructuring and i. ii. iii. iv. Journal of Management Policy and Practice vol. 12(1) 2011 81 ownsizing of workforce, demands of customers, technological change and globalization of business are other important issues which impinge dominantly on HRM system. In Omani busi ness context, Omanization policies of the government, heavy reliance on the expatriate workforce, lack of training and vocational institutions, absence of skilled workforce, absence of trained and competent HR professionals in local labour market, prevalent collectivist work environment, in-group collectivism and sheikhocracy, prevalence of Wasta in selection and promotion systems, adherence to labor and commercial laws besides other factors are important and play crucial role in shaping HRM system at national level. Oman is an oil-based economy and to encourage the process of Omanization in oil and gas industry, Oman Society for Petroleum Services (OPAL) was created in October 2001 by a Ministerial Decree. OPAL adopted a mindset change strategy in their second HRD Workshop which was attended by 60 HR professionals in March 2006. OPAL feels that the perceived mindset in employment environment needs to be changed as current attitudes of some companies are that: They Omanise because of the Government pressure and in order to meet the minimum target to obtain labor clearance rather than as a good employment policy. They adopt salary structure to a minimum statutory one and it doesn’t match the competencies of the individuals. Moreover, they don’t look for retaining local skills or encouraging their self development. They consider the local human resources as a financial liability and not as a valid asset that could increase their profitability. Therefore, investment in their training and development becomes the sole responsibility of the government and not the employers. Appropriate budget for the development of nationals is rarely set aside and investment in people is rarely reflects in companies’ vision (Khan, 2007). Al-Hamadi and Budhwar (2006) in their study find that the triangle of Islam, tribe and family plays a very important role in almost everything in Oman including HRM. They are of the view that Islam is at the top of the triangle in Oman with its effects on all aspects of life whereas the tribe and family form the base of triangle and the second-most influential institutions in Oman after Islam though Islam prohibits tribal prejudices. In their survey of 712 employees employed in six semi-private and public sector organizations examining the perception of employees regarding the influence of aspects of national culture and institutional factors on HRM policies and practices, they found that Omani employees give high priority to the importance of religion and the socialization process. The influence of the expatriate workforce, management style unique to Omani work environment, organizational culture, and the influence of the social elite (i. e. , people educated abroad) are other important factors. They also found that Omani employees give high priority to Civil service laws, educational and vocational training set-up, Omani labour laws, labor market and Omanization programs besides local administrative establishment such as Ministry of legal affairs, Court of legal administration, and the Court of the Royal Diwan. These are the institutions which have direct impact on HRM system in Oman. It can be summarized that in time to come the industrial relation and labour union may have a fair amount of impact on HRM in Oman. Though, it is not significant (Al-Hamadi and Budhwar, 2006) at present but the beginning has been done. The radical change in the Omani industrial relation history in regard to the formation of trade union came on July 9, 2006 when a Royal Decree as a response to the commitment to the US-Oman FTA came into force. This decree cancels or supersedes all earlier provisions of the labor law that contravene or contradict its provisions. The recent changes in the labor law undertaken in Oman in response to the US-Oman FTA will have long lasting impact on the Omani labor scene and consequent employment relationship in Oman in time to come. Though, it is difficult to predict that making such provisions will result into the emergence of the strong trade union movement in Oman. Cultural factors, encouragement by the government, institutional support, appetite among employees to protect and promote their employment interests and rights and presence of the strong union leadership will be the most important factors in this regard. But the recent changes in labor law will surely strengthen and protect workers’ interest and they will find an avenue to raise their voice in case of an 82 Journal of Management Policy and Practice vol. 12(1) 2011 ventuality. This may pave the way for the realization of industrial democracy in Oman at workplace (Khan, 2007). CONCLUSION This is an important fact that the HR function has attr acted the attention of corporate managers, consultants and researchers alike in GCC countries and in Oman as well. HRM is in nascent stage in Oman and the lack of HR knowledge and competency to understand the socio-contextual factors have generated a dilemma before the firms in Oman in dealing with the change in their respective HR process. The emergence of various approaches and models has further confused the HR constituency in dealing with emerging business challenges. Soft or a hard model, contextual model or culture bound HRM model, best fit or best practices HR model, convergence or divergence model, which one of them is suitable for Omani context is the moot question being raised by HR practitioners, academicians and researchers. Convergence approach labeled as the best practices approach is based on the normative statements of what HR practices should look like and it is highly influenced by American researchers and commentators whereas the divergence approach advocates that the HRM model must be embedded with culture-specific elements. It can be concluded that neither convergence nor divergence model can serve the purpose of HRM constituency which is so diverse and global at the same time. There is a need to adopt a middle of the path approach which can integrate the qualities of both approaches which are pertinent and solve the socio-contextual issues and integrate both opposite streams rather than trying to ascertain one more valid than the other. This approach will surely help in taking into account the regional ambiguity and developing a HRM framework which can be pertinent for Omani firms as well. As evident from the previous discussion, understanding the national HRM system and its constituents at macro level will surely provide the HR professionals and line managers, the requisite knowledge to deal with the exigencies of people management. As each country’s business, economic and socio-political forces shape its national HRM context which is distinct from other, and in case of Oman, we can conclude that there exists a distinct HRM system. 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Wii free essay sample

Having said that, the fight for market shares between these 3 leaders has always been intense even if, thanks to the rapid growth of the market, a price war was never started. This doesn’t mean that all the consoles had the same price-positioning strategy: in 2008, there were consistent pricing differences between the three products and companies strove to provide the best price for value, so we can say that priced-base rivalry existed among the three companies. Moreover, each firm chose a different product differentiation strategy, which ultimately lead to higher switching costs and reduced the level of rivalry. Therefore, we can conclude that the video game industry was a rapidly growing sector with a small number of competitors and a huge potential for profits. Bargaining power of buyers: as already said before, consoles-customers face high switching costs: when a customers chooses a platform, which is usually expensive, he implicitly accepts not to play video games that are not compatible with it and, because of the console’s high price, that he won’t be able to change it in the short term. We will write a custom essay sample on Wii or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This is why consumers expect a good price for value and a wide selection of compatible videogames. As a consequence, the launch of a new console represents a unique opportunity, for producers, to acquire long-term customers and to â€Å"steal† them from other competitors. On the other side, once a client is lost, it will be difficult to gain him back until a new platform is launched. However, in conclusion, we can say that, with few producers and many individual customers on the market, the buyer’s power is quite weak. Bargaining power of suppliers: Sony, Microsoft and Nintendo chose to outsource the manufacturing of the key (hardware) components of their consoles, a decision that gave a lot of power to their suppliers and made them responsible for their day-by-day production. Therefore, they play a key role in the success of a new product, mainly because they manufacture the most important hardware components that will be, at the end, evaluated by customers. The processor, the graphic card and the audio card have a drastic impact on the games’ level of involvement and deeply affect the overall quality of the platform. Moreover, in the light of the strategic role that consoles’ suppliers had in the past, we can conclude that the bargaining power of suppliers is quite high. Availability of substitutes: Dissatisfied customers can choose between lots of substitute products within the market, that among others comprise PC games, handheld video game devices, Smartphones, board games and other â€Å"physical† toys. Even if choosing a substitute product means facing high switching costs, the entertainment market is able to satisfy a wide range of different needs and tastes, making the threat of substitutions, for the video game industry, high. Threat of new entrants: The video game sector is a technology driven industry where a huge amount of resources are invested in the Ramp;D department: as a consequence, the initial investment needed to enter the market is almost prohibitive for small and medium sized firms. In addition, all the 3 market leaders have a strong brand power, with a loyal customer base willing to spend a lot of money for their cutting-edge products: raising brand awareness would be a very difficult achievement for newcomers. With very few companies entering in the market during the entire industry’s life and the difficulties highlighted above, we can conclude that the concentration and size of the existing companies would make it difficult, for a new company, to enter and obtain a portion of the market share. 2. The history of the video game industry has been characterized by rapid and frequent changes of fortune, often resulting in radical turnarounds that redefined its benchmarks and standards. To understand this trend, it is important to keep in mind that this industry has been cyclical in nature in response to the introduction of a new technology. With the release of a new platform, (approximately every five years) the product’s sales increase drastically, especially during the launch phase, while the older platform and all its related accessories begin to be obsolete. The introduction of a technological discontinuity (represented by the new generation console) can overturn the existing competitive structure of an industry, creating new leaders and losers. Shumpeterian’s creative destruction can be difficult to manage and the market often finds itself unprepared. Therefore, every manager should always consider the risk of product cannibalization and the uncertainty that comes along with technological innovations. Another important lesson that Mr. Hirai should learn is about the role that network externalities play in the market. Network externalities are present when the value of a product increases with the number of others using it. Within the video games industry, the success of a new platform is strictly related to the availability and quality of complementary goods (games) and, at the same time, products that have a large installed base are more likely to attract developers of complementary goods. Since the availability of appealing video games will influence users’ choice of the platform, the availability of video games will influence the size of the installed base, in a virtuous self-reinforcing cycle. Given the situation highlighted above, it becomes crucial for console companies to establish some sort of stable relationship with video games producers, in order to assure a minimum standard quality for the complementary goods. Other strategic alliances could be useful, for example with strategic components’ suppliers: it is crucial, for Sony, to keep ensuring a high level of flexibility (in terms of software compatibility and licensing model) to its strategic suppliers in order to minimize in-house development and to exploit core capabilities of business partners. But along with strategic alliances comes the risk of â€Å"technological spill over† (i. e. the result of a spread of knowledge – usually from the Ramp;D department- across the organizational boundaries). In the case of Atari, as presented in the study, the spill over was caused by four former Atari’s programmers who left the company to start up a parallel venture based on Atari’s know how and technologies. However, the problem was solved with the introduction of an authentication chip that prevented independent developers from marketing unauthorized games. Finally, one last lesson can be learned from the case study: the first mover advantage doesn’t always mean success. As seen in the case study, Microsoft worked hard to snatch the first mover advantage from Sony and launched its Xbox 360 a full year before both PlayStation 3 and Nintendo’s Wii. Even if the console sold out at launch, the high price combined with supply shortages resulted in heavy marginal losses for the American company. Nintendo, on the other side, focused more on being innovative than on being the first mover, and, as a result, between the release and August 2008 it outsold the two rivals in every month except one. Being different and innovative sometimes means much more than being the first. To conclude, the attractiveness of the video game industry has been changing over time, depending on the different role played by consoles through the years. Until the end of the 90’, platforms were only seen as mere hardware infrastructures on which hit games were played. Nowadays, consumers have become increasingly aware of the central role played by these products in providing a unique gaming experience: the purchasing process of a console is a critic and pondered decision based both on price and hardware characteristics. The market is rapidly growing, its competitors strive to provide customers with the most innovative and advanced products and profit margins continue to be relatively high. In addition, there’s room for improvement: in a few years, consoles will be technologically ready to take the lead role and become media centres. Producers are facing the opportunity to sell an all-in-one device that could make people’s life easier by aggregating every form of home digital entertaining, including video games. Ultimately, we can say that not only the market is attractive, but it also has excellent development potential for the future. 3. To regain its leadership, Sony can choose between the following strategies: Becoming a Wii follower: Nintendo’s Wii success showed, as said before, that being innovative and user friendly might be the keys to succeed in the business. Even if the video game industry is a technology driven sector, trying to think â€Å"out of the box† turns out to be, sometimes, a more valuable resource than having the most advanced product in the market. Nintendo opened a niche that was never explored before: videogames not just for teenagers or young adults but also for families. By following the Wii strategy, Sony would create a new kind of product (compared to ones generally sold by the company) and expand its existing customer base, by focusing on a not-completely-tapped segment of non-traditional gamers that, regardless of their ages and genres, are looking for a simpler and less time-consuming way of entertaining themselves. Stick to the core: Sony could choose to stay focused on its core business and to invest its resources in fine-tuning the existing technologies and trying to redefine its market position. This strategy will require specific investments in business areas, such as the online multiplayer gaming area and the online marketplace, where additional games and features could be sold. Moreover, a huge marketing campaign would be needed in order to convey a new image of the company’s main product (PlayStation 3) and to communicate its own uniqueness. PlayStation 3 should be seen as a sort of time machine, able to let users escape from routine and reality to a reign where everything is possible. The product should become a must have for users who want to spend their leisure time just relaxing and experiencing a revitalizing mental escape. By expanding, in the customer’s perceptions, the traditional horizon of a video game console, Sony would be also able to detach itself from other videogames consoles, often seen as a mere mean of distraction or, even worse, as a luxury toy for teenagers. Becoming an all-in-one digital media centre: By choosing this option, Sony would have the chance to widen its customer base like never before, since the potential consumer could be represented by teenagers, adults and/or families. The underlying idea is to expand as much as possible the console’s features in order to create a centralized hub for a digital living room, highly integrated with other entertainment platforms. A system that is basically able to coordinate all digital forms of entertaining at a domestic level, in order to simplify the way that people live and have fun. At the same time, creating a â€Å"digital amplifier† means having to deal with the continuous flux of innovation coming from other entertainment fields, such as movies, music, photography and so on. Going into the handheld video game device industry: To pursue this strategy, Sony would need to create a new portable console with the size of a smartphone and the complexity of a traditional console. By entering in the handheld devices sector, Sony would have the chance to compete against â€Å"phone-games† thanks to a product that would offer a new level of gaming involvement that no â€Å"app† could reach. A critical factor is considered to be the overall quality, availability and complexity of compatible games: the company should be able to provide games with the same level of complexity of their â€Å"older† brothers, while delivering an appealing portable solution for everyday and travelling gamers. Among the four different solutions listed above, we think that the most economically convenient option for Sony would be to follow the Wii strategy, since a big business opportunity has emerged. This strategy could be exploited especially in the short term, when competition is still low and there is a concrete chance to earn a considerable portion of the market share. This doesn’t mean that Sony should betray its traditional customers, considering also that the launch of the new platform could eventually cannibalize the sales of the older ones. Moreover, if the new consumer segment turns out to be extremely profitable, other competitors will try to enter the market, increasing competition and eroding profit margins. Sony should address this issue by seeking for a wiser middle term strategy, which involves a shift towards a different corporate image. By using a big marketing campaign and a product differentiation strategy, Sony could remain focused on the unique experience of mental escape (and not just entertainment) that its console and games can provide.